Matisse & the Marabout

Morocco's Colonization

Fri, 06 May 2005 01:19:28 +0000

In order to appreciate the contrast between East and West in Matisse's works, it is worthwhile to take a deeper look into the conflict itself, its origins, and its results. The French colonization of Morocco, like European intervention in any foreign state, had its roots in commerce. In the aftershock of the Industrial Revolution, European manufacturers sought new markets for their products, and through trade agreements, found opportunities abound in North Africa. Morocco's first serious commitment to European trade occurred in 1856, when the sultanate signed a treaty with England that opened Moroccan domestic markets to British goods. Opportunities for special trading privileges and customs collection produced heated competition among Western European nations. The French, who had occupied Algeria since 1830, had a vested interest in gaining these special rights in Morocco as well.

As it happened, Morocco in the late nineteenth century was a nation plagued by instability, both from external pressures (European commerce) and internal ones (civil rebellions). The rise of the young Mawlay 'Abd al-'Aziz as Sultan in late 1900 coincided with French occupation of the Touat Oasis, the first occurrence of French military intervention across Moroccan borders. The Moroccan government was unable to deal with this military action, as it had larger economic problems of its own that had mainly been induced by the flood of European products into the marketplace. After a failed attempt at tax reform, the sultan agreed to receive a series of substantial loans from French banks to deal with the growing problems. In return, the French were granted rights to collect sixty percent of Moroccan customs fees. Germany, aware of French intentions, tried to halt further intrusion into Morocco at the Algeciras Conference in 1906. However, the result of the conference was only to give more jurisdiction to the French in determining Morocco's economic policy. The following year, a French missionary doctor was murdered in Marrakesh. This crime led French troops to cross over from Algeria and take command of Oujda. In addition, the French landed troops at Casablanca in response to the murder of European construction workers.
At the same time of the landing, the sultan's brother, 'Abd al-Hafid revolted against the government, forcing Moroccans to fight both a civil war and a war against French encroachment. 'Abd al-Hafid succeeding in ousting his brother, but the problems were far from over for the sultanate. In 1909, even Spanish troops began making their way into Morocco.

Faced with internal strife and economic difficulties, the new sultan abdicated in 1912, handing the administration of the country over to France with the Treaty of Fez. The French were now free to introduce Western technology and ideas to Morocco, as well as receive substantial commercial gains. Although the protectorate did not mean social revolution, it did serve to advance those whose interests, especially commercial ones, coincided with those of the French. European domination of Morocco survived two World Wars and lasted over forty years. Morocco finally loosed its official ties from France on March 2, 1956, but the impact of colonization, on both the French and the Moroccans, has continued.

(pictured above right)Jonction des Deux Maroc par l'Occupation de Taza, Unused postcard, Published by Boumendil.

Information for this Gallery Section from:
Dunn, Ross E. Resistance in the Desert. Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1977.

Burke, Edmund III. Prelude to Protectorate in Morocco. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1976.

Renoir in Algeria

Thu, 05 May 2005 20:18:25 +0000

(pictured below) Mosque at Algiers, 1882, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Private Collection.

Henri Matisse's travels in North Africa gave him unique insight into a culture that few European artists could have obtained. However, he was not the first Frenchman to cross the Mediterranean in search of something new. Three decades earlier, renowned Impressionist Pierre-Auguste Renoir had made a similar journey to Algiers. Algeria, like Morocco, had been ruled for centuries by Berber dynasties like the Almoravids. Thus much of the culture, religion, and architecture were similar. After a period of domination by the Ottoman Turks, the French assumed control Algeria in 1830 (Benjamin, 122) Like Matisse, Renoir's journey to North Africa was in part made possible by this very European colonization. Like Tangier, Algiers was a remarkably culturally diverse city situated along the Mediterranean coast. Ironically, the two French artists often demonstrated interest in strikingly similar subjects. Roger Benjamin, in his book on Renoir in Algeria, writes, "Preferring the Casbah to the European zones of each city, both sought out Moorish liturgical archirecture: Renoir with the mosque of Sidi Abd-er-Rahman, Matisse with the little marabout of the upper Casbah and his sketch drawings of minarets"(Benjamin, 13) In fact, the mosque that Benjamin notes was painted three times by Renoir in 1882. Furthermore, Sidi Abd-er-Rahman, for whom the mosque is named, was himself a marabout (Benjamin, 123)

This mosque, one of the holiest Islamic shrines in Algeria, first appeared in Renoir's Mosque at Algiers (1882) Like Matisse's marabout, the mosque's outward surface was covered with white paint to combat the heat. Yet unlike the marabout, Renoir's mosque is rather ornate on the exterior. Renoir used small touches of bold blues, greens, oranges, and purples to denote the beautiful mosaics on that surround the mosque's minaret. Similar Islamic craftsmanship can be seen in the tiled roofs and window sills. Similar to Matisse thirty years later, Renoir's decision to depict a uniquely Islamic structure is significant. Though the French had ruled the country for over half a century, Renoir's depiction is untouched by any Western intrusion. Only Algerians are present, and a shrouded woman in white catches the viewer's eye.

(pictured right)Staircase of the Mosque of Sidi Abd-er-Rahman, Algiers, 1882, Renoir, Private Collection.

A similar woman in white appears in Renoir' two other depictions of the Mosque, both titled, Staircase of the Mosque of Sidi Abd-er-Rahman, Algiers. These two works depict the same scene, yet contain subtle differences. In one depiction, the scene is an explosion of color. Shadows of blue, red, orange, and purple mingle along the side of the staircase, which is surrounded by brilliant foliage. The white mosque, depicted with much detail, rises in the background. A shrouded Algerian woman sits to the right of the canvas, giving off an ambiguous glance in the direction of the painter. The second depiction is markedly different. Whereas reds and oranges dominated the first scene, this one shows a colorful but subtle mix of greens and yellows. The mosque does appear at the top of the canvas, but it has been cropped and forms have been blurred. The focus of the work is the shrouded woman, this time seated in the center of the composition, staring sharply out at the viewer. This depiction is true to Renoir's primary classification as a figure painter. Though he did paint a number of landscapes, some of the most spectacular works from his Algerian collection were in fact there figure paintings, like his Mademoiselle Fleury in Algerian Costume (1882). A number of Matisse's Moroccan figure paintings are directly comparable to these earlier works by Renoir (Benjamin, 13)(pictured left)Staircase of the Mosque of Sidi Abd-er-Rahman, Algiers, 1882, Renoir, Private Collection.

Though Matisse was substantially younger than Renoir, he did have remarkable appreciation of the elder's work. Renoir's stay in Algiers may have been what inspired Matisse to visit that same city in 1906, and Tangier in 1912 (Benjamin, 114) Their decision to portray the uniquely Eastern facets of North African life demonstrate a similar understanding of colonization, though Morocco did not become a colony until eighty-two years after the conquest of Algeria.

(pictured right)Madame Fleury in Algerian Costume, 1882, Renoir, Clarke Art Institute, Williamstown, Mass.

Morocco's Hispano-Moorish Architecture

Thu, 05 May 2005 04:35:13 +0000

As seen in the exhibit, Matisse demonstrated a significant degree of architectural interest in H. Matisse par lui-mÃªme. Particular attention is paid to the spherical dome of the tomb and the surrounding crenellation. The arched entryway also receives recognition. This arch, known as a cusped-pointed arch, is part of Morocco's dominant architectural tradition, Hispano-Moorish. In his book on Moroccan monuments, Richard Parker gives credit to Tunisian artisans in the development of Morocco's architecture, but emphasizes, "The most dramatic and direct impact on Morocco, however, obviously came from Muslim Spain" (Parker, 14) The arch that Matisse depicts is in the Cordovan style. This style originated under the Umayyad Caliphate at Cordoba in the eighth century. It is important to note that the Cordovan technique was essentially limited to Spain, and did not truly have an impact on Morocco until centuries later.

It was not until the Almoravid conquest of Spain in the eleventh century that Hispano-Moorish ideas crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, for the Almoravids had already conquered Morocco before entering the Iberian Peninsula. Having gained control of Spain, the Almoravids sent artisans back to Morocco, where they introduced the cusped and horseshoe arches to Moroccan structures. Not many Almoravid structures survive today, but the Qubba (pictured left), or "cupola," in Marrakesh remains one pristine example. Much of Islamic architecture in general is simple on the exterior, yet remarkably intricate on the interior. Matisse, unable to gain entry to Tangier's tombs, did not depict what was likely a highly decorated structure on the inside. Marrakesh's Qubba (pictured below) surely differed from the marabout tomb, but the underside of its dome can give some idea of what could be expected inside the tomb.
The Almoravid style was especially concerned with detail, and their décor consists mainly of highly stylized geometric and floral patters.

Andalusian-influenced architecture continued to flourish under the Almohad Dynasty which replaced the Almoravids in Morocco in the mid twelfth century. The Almohad ruler Yaqub al Mansur oversaw construction of some of the finest Hispano-Moorish structures of the dynasty, including Marrakesh's Kutubiya mosque (pictured right).
Almohad décor is characterized as as a broader and smoother simplification of lavish and intricate Almoravid architecture.

The final formative period for Moroccan architecture ended in the early fifteenth century with the fall of the Merinids, who had usurped the Almohads. Their style incorporated various elements from the Almoravid and Almohad traditions. The Merinid style is most noticeable by its décor couvrant, or decoration which entirely covers the surface of a structure. An excellent example of this can be seen at the Bou Inania medersa, or religious school, at Fes (pictured below).

Information and Pictures for this Gallery Section from:
Parker, Richard. A practical guide to Islamic Monuments in Morocco. Charlottesville, Virginia: The Baraka Press, 1981.

Matisse Before Morocco

Wed, 04 May 2005 22:27:23 +0000

"The voyages to Morocco helped me accomplish the necessary transition and make contact with nature again better than did the application of a lively but somewhat limiting theory, Fauvism." (qtd. Schneider, 459).

An analysis of Matisse's Moroccan oeuvre would not be entirely complete without a look back at the works that predate the artist's voyage to Africa. During the first decade of the 1900's, Matisse had found fame, or infamy, in his experience as a Fauve. The term "fauve", meaning "wild beast," comes from a review by Louis Vauxelles of Matisse's entry in a 1905 salon. Vauxelles remarks sarcastically, "He has courage, for his entryâ€�?as he well knowsâ€�?well fare about as well as a Christian virgin fed to wild beasts in the arena."(qtd. Flam, 47) Matisse's canvases, like Luxe, Calme et Volupté(1904-05) were constructed entirely of bold colors, and Matisse sought to achieve effect through color and light alone. This can be seen in the literal rainbow sky that is reflected in the ocean in the painting. The figures, too, are constructed entirely of reds, blues, and other bright colors. On the other hand, to say that this struck a discordant note with the existing artistic authorities is an understatement. Gelett Burgess, an American illustrator, commented on his visit to the Salon des Indépendants, remarking, "I had scarcely entered the Salon des Indépendants when I heard shrieks of laughter coming from an adjoining wingâ€¦Suddenly I had entered a new world, a universe of uglinessâ€¦It was Matisse who took the first step into the undiscovered land of the ugly." (qtd. Flam, 119) It is true that the responses to Matisse's artistic endeavors were negative, but both Vauxelles and Burgess realized Matisse's role as an innovator and a rebel against artistic conventions. Yet, as noted by Matisse's own words, cited above, even Fauvism placed limitations on the artist. Matisse's foray into Tangier hardly turned out to be a simple aesthetic transformation, but a desire to escape Fauvism was part of what led the painter to Morocco in the first place.

(pictured above) Luxe, Calme, et Volupte, 1904-05, Henri Matisse, Musee National d'Arte Moderne, Paris.

About the Author

Wed, 27 Apr 2005 00:55:32 +0000

Aaron Weil hails from Bellaire, Texas. He is an almost-talented guitarist and a frequent patron of Pico's Mexican Restaurant in Houston. Special interests include classic rock, pecan pie, and watching college football. Aaron enjoys speaking French and looks forward to picking up Italian in the future. He graduated from the Kinkaid School in Houston and currently attends Princeton University as a member of the Class of 2008. He would never have made it here had it not been for his father Stuart, his mother Jane, his sisters Elizabeth and Julie, and, last but not least, his dog Blackberry.
When not busy writing sports articles for the Daily Princetonian or giving tours as an Orange Key guide, he usually sits around and does nothing. Aaron is a strong supporter of "not letting school get in the way of college." While not in the least sophisticated, he does ironically enjoy art. His favorite artists of the late 19th and 20th centuries include Vincent van Gogh, Joan MirÃ³, Gustav Klimt, and Henri Matisse. El Greco is a particular favorite from an older era. Aaron was first intrigued by Matisse's journeys in Morocco after having come upon the gargantuan Les Marocains at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. This work, although not actually created in Morocco, inspired Aaron to delve more deeply into the topic.

Works Cited

Tue, 26 Apr 2005 22:51:35 +0000

Works Cited

I'd like to give special thanks to Sarah Sherman, Morgan Alonso, Jana Holt, Brett Masters, and Namita Bisaria for their invaluable advice on my essay.

I. Works by Henri Matisse:

Matisse, Henri Luxe, Calme, et Volupte, 1904-05, Musee National d'Arte Moderne, Paris.

Matisse, Henri. Vue de la médine, 1912. Private Collection.

Matisse, Henri. Vue sur la baie de Tanger, 1912. Grenoble, Musée de Grenoble.

Matisse, Henri. H. Matisse par lui-mÃªme, 1912. Private collection.

Matisse, Henri. Casbah : Marabout et drapeau, 1912/1913. Private Collection

Matisse, Henri. Deux vues de Tanger, 1912/1913. Private Collection

Matisse, Henri. Le dÃ´me du marabout, 1912/1913. Private Collection

Matisse, Henri. Le marabout, 1912/1913. Private Collection.

Matisse, Henri. Les Marocains, 1916. New York, Museum of Modern Art.

II. Works by Renoir

Renoir, Pierre-Auguste. Mosque at Algiers, 1882. Private Collection

Renoir, Pierre-Auguste. Staircase of the Mosque of Sidi Abd-er-Rahman, Algiers,
1882. Private Collection

Renoir, Pierre-Auguste. Staircase of the Mosque of Sidi Abd-er-Rahman, Algiers,
1882. Private Collection

Renoir, Pierre-Auguste. Madame Fleury in Algerian Costume, 1882. Clarke Art Institute, Williamstown, Mass.

III. Other works cited:

Jonction des Deux Maroc par L'Occupation de Taza, Unused postcard, Boumendil, pub.

Burke, Edmund III. Prelude to Protectorate in Morocco. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1976.

Cowart, Jack, Pierre Schneider, John Elderfield, Albert Kostenevich, and Laura Coyle.
Matisse in Morocco: The Paintings and Drawings, 1912-1913. Washington, D.C.:
National Gallery of Art, 1990.

Dunn, Ross E. Resistance in the Desert. Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1977.

Flam, Jack, ed. Matisse: A Retrospective. New York: Hugh Lauter Levin Associates,
Inc., 1988.

"Orientalist Excursions." Matisse. Turner, Caroline and Roger Benjamin, Eds. South Brisbane, Australia: Queensland Art Gallery, 1995. 70-83.

Parker, Richard. A practical guide to Islamic Monuments in Morocco. Charlottesville, Virginia: The Baraka Press, 1981.

Roger, Benjamin. "Matisse in Morocco: A Colonizing Esthetic?" Art in
America 78.11 (1990): 156-165, 211.

Roger, Benjamin. Renoir and Algeria. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003.

Schneider, Pierre. "Paradise and hell." Matisse. New York: Rizzoli International Publications, Inc., 2002. 459-493.

I pledge that I have not violated the Honor Code on this project.
Aaron Weil

Tangier Revisited

Tue, 26 Apr 2005 22:48:03 +0000

Returning now to Matisse sitting on his terrace overlooking the Tangier's harbor, the newly-arrived artists could not possibly have known the impact that the marabout was to have on him and his art. As noted by Schneider, Matisse's opportunity to escape Fauvism through new interests like Moroccan architecture proved invaluable. Matisse himself noted that "The voyages to Morocco helped me accomplish the necessary transition and make contact with nature again better than did the application of a lively but somewhat limiting theory, Fauvism." However, at the same time, Matisse discovered a distinctly Islamic world embodied by the saints and their tombs. The marabouts represented at times a violent response to the colonization that Morocco had seen over the past couple decades. Their struggle was representative of the clash between East and West, and in turn, helped Matisse more fully understand a unique culture that was loosing its footing in North Africa. On the other hand, as Roger Benjamin notes, the artist's work was "paradoxically only made possible within that very process of colonization" (Roger, 158) Benjamin confirms that Matisse was aware of the restrictions that his European background placed on him in Tangier. Matisse ultimately had to grapple with the fact that his country had subjected Morocco to colonial rule. In retrospect, Matisse's depictions of the Muslim tomb are sadly ironic in their emblematic role. The marabout tomb was the enshrinement of death, much like Matisse's Tangier. Often hailed as a gateway to the East, the coastal city was in reality where the East came to die.

Les Marocains

Tue, 26 Apr 2005 22:40:39 +0000

In this same vein, Matisse ultimately realized that his presence in Morocco was not necessary and that Tangier was better off without European intrusion. This is represented by the marabout in his Les Marocains (1916), completed in France, three years after his departure from Morocco. The canvas is composed of three segments and near the top left-center is the marabout. The structure has undergone a sort of abstraction as architectural detail has been thrown to the wind. Instead, the tomb's walls stretch to the top of the canvas, where its dome is met by streaks of white on a black background. Just as the earlier Le marabout, light rays and proximity to the top of the canvas elevate the tomb and link it to the heavens. The imam, symbolic of the Muslim faith, gazes over in the direction of the marabout from his position on the pink minaret and seems to raise his arm towards it.
Notably, European presence is not found at all in this view of Tangier. The scene is entirely Eastern and Islamic. Matisse shares with his audience his personal view of quintessential Morocco, pure and untainted by Western influence. Here is the marabout saint's aforementioned baraka, divine grace, translated in paint. In titling his painting "the Moroccans" Matisse gives the marabout symbolic significance, presenting it as the focus of the Moroccan experience. Les Marocains signifies Matisse's idealistic view of the East, but in the end, the context of the work is marked by contradiction. It depicts a scene lacking in Western intrusion, yet was itself painted on the coast of France. Furthermore, Matisse would never have been able to depict this scene had he not himself intruded into Morocco three years earlier. At this point Matisse has come full circle from H. Matisse. He has finally realized that he cannot include himself in a depiction of how he sees Morocco. Though the West did triumph, for Matisse, a successful recreation of Morocco warrants utter exclusion of European influence.

(pictured above)Les Marocains, 1916, Henri Matisse, New York, Museum of Modern Art.

Le marabout

Tue, 26 Apr 2005 22:29:57 +0000

(pictured left)Le marabout, 1912/1913, Henri Matisse, Private Collection.

As shown by a couple of Matisse's more ambitious works, his answer to this query is a resounding "no." Matisse articulates this with Le marabout (1912/1913), where his contrast between East and West is much more discreet and thus more powerful as he decides that European influence in Tangier is undesirable. Unlike the previous sketches and Vue sur la baie de Tanger, all of which appear to have been made in relative haste, Le marabout is carefully crafted. The artist has removed any notion of European presence and focuses in entirely on one of Tangier's more Eastern street corners. Depicted here is another tomb, that of the marabout, Sidi Berraisoul, on the rue Ben Abbou (Cowart et. al, 64) In this painting Matisse seems to peer out from a shaded alley to see the sun beaming on the dome of the tomb. At the time of this painting's completion, the artist had evidenced less and less an interest in the tomb from an architectural standpoint. He did still pay some attention to structural features, again hinting at longitudinal lines on the dome, but the once-sharp lines are softened and forms have become blurred. Though shadows dominate the composition, they do not cover the tomb's dome. Through strokes of bright white and yellow, Matisse separated the tomb from its surroundings. The resulting mood is highly spiritual and distinctly Eastern, since it has been accomplished without any notion of iconography as is consistent with Islamic religious tradition. This mood is portrayed, first of all, through the dome that reaches into the sky near the top of the canvas, just as it does in his drawing, Casbah: Marabout et drapeau (1912/1913).
The viewpoint is from below, like a pilgrim's, gazing upwards toward the revered monument. Also, the sun shining on the dome connects the tomb with the heavens, a fitting natural phenomenon for the saint who sleeps within. More importantly, this marabout holds an added mysterious aura because Matisse's viewing point is probably as close as the artist could get, as, in the words of Roger Benjamin, these tombs "may not be visited by non-believers" (Turner and Benjamin, 77) As a Westerner, he could not experience the tomb from the inside but was still able to capture some of the site's significance via painting it from the exterior. His inability to enter the tomb plays out the East-West contrast much more implicitly than the previously mentioned works. Simultaneously, Matisse's recognition that he cannot gain unrestricted access is a further reminder that Europeans do not belong.

(pictured right) Casbah: marabout et drapeau, 1912/1913, Henri Matisse, Private Collection.

The Contrast Sharpens

Tue, 26 Apr 2005 21:21:50 +0000

Vue sur la baie de Tanger, 1912, Henri Matisse, Grenoble, Musee de Grenoble.

Capturing this contrast of East and West on paper was a bold move on the part of Matisse, but transferring the marabout tomb onto the canvas lets the viewer know that the artist was developing an elevated and more serious interest in the subject. Vue sur la baie de Tanger shows that Matisse, although he did still demonstrate some architectural interest, was fascinated more and more by the symbolic Euro-African differences embodied by the tomb.
It should be noted that in contrast to the curving beach and sloping hills, the dome of the tomb is more intensely geometric. Matisse also pays closer attention to the crenellation that surrounds the dome. He notes the unique shape of these crenellations by complementing each touch of white paint with a touch of blue that notes the curving, multi-faced design.
Yet, the notion that Matisse only saw the marabout tomb in Vue sur la baie de Tanger as a matter of architectural interest is incorrect. The tomb depicted here was indeed a decent example of Islamic architecture, but it was far from the greatest. Ironically, the artist himself had already visited, in 1910, Cordoba, and had visited, but did not paint, La Mezquita (Turner and Benjamin, 74) The "Mezquita," rivaled perhaps only by Granada's Alhambra as the most spectacular example of Islamic architecture in the Europe, would have provided an opportunity unlike any other to develop an interest in Islamic architecture. However, Matisse did not devote significant effort to depicting the Cordovan mosque as he did for a few plain white buildings in Tangier. Matisse therefore implies something deeper when he forced the marabout tomb to emerge from the cityscape in this painting. As in the previous sketch, Matisse has used the burial place to set up a contrast. Notably, the dome of the tomb is parallel in shape to the curving harbor, which draws the viewer's attention to both. The harbor, complete with a steamship, represents the entry point for European merchants, diplomats, and other visitors. The only visitors to the marabout tomb, however, are the shrouded Muslims that surround the structure. In a drawing of the same year, Vue de la Médine (1912), Matisse likewise depicted only native personages surrounding the tomb. By obscuring the forms of the ships, Matisse seeks to downplay their importance, as if to say that Islamic Tangier, represented by the marabout tomb is perfectly fine without Western interference. Simultaneously, the ships at sea do remind Matisse that he is of their blood, not the Moroccans. In other words, Matisse's inclusion of this European element symbolically serves as recognition, like in H.Matisse par lui-mÃªme, that the artist himself was in contrast with his environment.

(pictured above right)Vue de la Medine, 1912, Henri Matisse, Private Collection.

Although Deux vues de Tanger(1912/1913) may appear like a regression to pen and paper, in truth shows that Matisse plucked the two most significant elements from Vue sur la baie de Tanger and focused in on their symbolic significance as opposing entities. These elements were the steamships and the marabout tomb. "Two views" show this stark contrast via a picture-in-picture. To represent the presence of the West, Matisse occupies a corner of his sketch with a look out over the city towards the water, across which lies the Iberian Peninsula and all of Europe. The ocean is dominated by the presence of steamboats, their smoke billowing in different directions. These commercial boats encapsulate the historical origins of French intervention in Morocco, as economic interest was the original motivator for colonization. The three ships sail around the shore as if they were invading it. On the other hand, the larger vue which occupies most of the drawing shows the more authentically Muslim remnants of Tangier. To represent this, Matisse has chosen a marabout as the primary structure. The dome and longitudinal lines are imperfect, showing that Matisse did not likely use the marabout in this situation as a matter of architectural intrigue. It serves its role by symbolizing the heart of the city. It is blocked off from European influence, as it is not near the coast, and as only Muslims may enter it. The marabout signifies the Morocco that Matisse saw in its purest form, and the steamships remind him of his own nationality and of his inevitable return to France. Yet symbolism aside, what is most important about this sketch is that it begs the question, is the view of the steamships a unique image of Tangier? In other words, Matisse seems to ask whether European presence is truly necessary for a successful depiction of the Moroccan city.

(pictured above right)Deux Vues de Tanger, 1912/1913, Henri Matisse, Private Collection.

H. Matisse par lui-meme

Tue, 19 Apr 2005 16:54:52 +0000

Matisse sketched a sort of "ode" to this fresh arrival in Morocco in H. Matisse par lui-mÃªme(1912), where he begins to explore the East-West contrast while still demonstrating an interest in architecture. In this early drawing, Matisse depicts himself seated with a sketchbook, his back to the viewer. Dressed in distinctly European garb, complete with a top hat, he seems in direct contrast to his environment, which is composed of two Muslim women, and even more notably, the marabout tomb. The self-portrait, sketchbook in hand, appears to be drawing the tomb. There is a reason why Matisse included himself in this work, and there is a reason why the building he is depicted sketching is the marabout. In what appears to be an architectural exercise, Matisse has drawn longitudinal lines on the hemispherical dome of the tomb. Matisse notes the crenellations surrounding the dome as covered with light foliage, similar to his Le dome du marabout (1912/1913) Clearly, Matisse was intrigued by the nuances of Moroccan architecture and saw the marabout tomb as an opportunity to broaden his horizons artistically. On the other hand, even in this early work, it seems that deeper implications are present. In fact, Matisse's presence as an element in the drawing sets up the perfect contrast between East and West. Matisse almost comically represents the colonial presence in Morocco. On the other hand, the marabout tomb represents violent Eastern opposition to that very intrusion.
Though this particular saint may not himself have been an instigator, the members of his caste represented the primary opposition to French presence, and at the very least, the marabout's position as a saint puts him at the high end of a distinctly Eastern religion. Through contrast via his own person, Matisse has implied that a European intrusion in some ways tarnishes the scene as a whole. In other words, Matisse highlighted Morocco's unique Islamic architecture and culture, but his contrasting self-inclusion marks the artist's recognition that, as a Frenchman, he does not truly belong with the surroundings.

(pictured above)H. Matisse par lui-meme,
1912, Henri Matisse, Private Collection.

(pictured right)Le dome du marabout,
1912/1913, Henri Matisse, Private Collection.

Morocco in Transition

Tue, 19 Apr 2005 16:26:05 +0000

In order to fully understand the significance of the marabout in Matisse's art, it is first imperative to grasp the intrusion of France into Moroccan affairs preceding Matisse's arrival, and the significant reactionary role that the marabout saint played in the context of that colonization. France had actually demonstrated significant interest in Morocco from a commercial standpoint beginning in the 1890's and engaged in military intervention to actualize its aims as early as 1900 (Burke, 44-45) French expansion in North Africa continued throughout the first decade of the twentieth century and resulted in Morocco becoming an official French protectorate in 1912 under the Treaty of Fez (Burke, xxii) In fact, the signing of this treaty predates Matisse's arrival in Morocco by only a few months. This transformation of Morocco from a Sultanate to a French colony lasted over a decade and met at times with fierce resistance.

Here is where the marabout comes in. Known in Arabic as murabtin, marabouts occupied a special place in Morocco's predominantly Islamic society. Said to be descended of holy men, the marabouts possessed baraka, or divine grace, and were viewed as saints (Dunn, 42) They took leadership roles in their communities, often mediating local disagreements, but equally important, they were the driving force behind organized resistance to European colonial expansion. Ross Dunn in his book Resistance in the Desert writes that "Neither Mahdism or militant Sufism offered transcendent solutions for the people of southeastern Morocco, and large-scale resistance was in the end an unqualified failure. Yet it was only through 'maraboutism' that such resistance was undertaken at all"(Dunn, 253) This "maraboutism" that Dunn notes should not be cast aside simply because it failed to fend off a superior French military machine. That these saints were able to foment opposition at all speaks volumes about their influence among Moroccan communities. Marabout families were prominent in the oases that the French would later consider primary objectives, so it is no surprise that they would embody popular resistance to aggressive French maneuvering.

When the dust settled, however, France prevailed and the Mediterranean city of Tangier was symbolic of the triumphant Europeans. In an early nineteenth century publication by Robert Kerr, Tangier is described as "the seat of European diplomacy" with a rather equally mixed population of Muslims, Jews, and Christians (qtd. Cowart, 153) Spanish and French nationals inhabited the city, and even an Anglican church was present. Indeed, Jack Cowart, in an essay on Matisse's drawings, writes, "One heard not only the Christian bells, but also the muezzins calling Muslims to prayer"(Cowart, 147) In this passage, it is important to note that Cowart mentions the church bells first. In fact, taken out of context this could be the description of a cosmopolitan European capital, like Paris or Madrid. His order of presentation, whether intentional or not, evidences the claim that Tangier no longer existed as a quintessentially Islamic city. Instead, is physical proximity to Europe had by 1912 transformed the city into a conglomeration of East and West. This tourist destination would have provided the artist with new subjects and new artistic ideas in a sunny, exotic environment. Depicting structures, especially uniquely Islamic ones, would have given him a new arena to express himself. Though the nature of Tangier had changed, the city surely maintained at least some of its distinctly Islamic features, most prominently the mosque and the marabout tombs. These saints' tombs served to contrast with the newly arrived European presence.

(pictured above)The French Foreign Legion in Morocco, 1937, Henri Manuel