Like Whistler, van Gogh's Japanese influences had a profound effect on his night paintings. He was heavily involved in the Japonisme that swept Europe in the 1850s and 1860s. Also a collector of Japanese ukiyoe woodcuts, his artistic style was similarly influenced by Hiroshige, for instance, making careful studies of Hiroshige's Rain Shower on Ohashi. Furthermore, Grove Art Online reports that, like Whistler, "it was the effects of color and perspective that especially attracted [van Gogh's] attention…[as well as] the simplicity, linear forms, and flat areas of color found in these Japanese prints" ("van Gogh"). These influences are clearly manifest in van Gogh's night paintings, Starry Night over the Rhone and Starry Night, created during the late 1880s. Even with the hills in the background of Starry Night, the landscape shows little depth. Additionally, both paintings demonstrate the strong horizontals characteristic of Japanese prints. Yet most important is the binary color scheme â€" blue and gold â€" of the pieces, which is an unmistakable parallel with the night paintings of Whistler and Hiroshige. In fact, it is likely that both Whistler and van Gogh initially experimented with "painting the night" as a result of Hiroshige's influence.
However, though van Gogh and Whistler were similarly motivated by Japanese artistic styles, van Gogh's night paintings are profoundly emotional, setting them apart from Whistler's "moonlights," which are purely aesthetic. According to Grove Art Online, they are widely understood to have "strong religious overtones, and the swirling stars of the sky have sometimes been interpreted as an image of the artist's equally tormented soul" ("van Gogh"). Thus, while in creating his "moonlights" Whistler wished to "indicate an artistic interest alone" (qtd. Ono 72), van Gogh's "starry nights" were an emotional outlet. This is perhaps the reason why Whistler's and van Gogh's paintings, both of the night and both influenced by Hiroshige, appear so very different. Van Gogh's works are swirling, his brushstrokes careening across the canvas, while Whistler's "moonlights" are subdued, muted, and harmonious.
That Whistler's "moonlights" and van Gogh's "starry nights" can appear so different while both representing adaptations of Hiroshige's style testifies to the profound effect of the identity of the artist on his creation. It is impossible to say which artist has better adapted the Japanese style or who has done a better job of "painting the night." Through this channel, both have made an equally important and equally valid statement.
Van Gogh, Vincent. Rain Shower on Ohashi, 1887.
Hiroshige, Utagawa. Rain Shower on Ohashi, 1887.
Van Gogh, Vincent. Starry Night, 1889.
Van Gogh, Vincent. Starry Night Over the Rhone, 1888.
Recorded by the art critic John Ruskin in the July 1877 edition of his journal Fors Clavigera, these words of condemnation struck a sour note with Whistler, who faced mounting debts at the time of their publications, and precipitated what was perhaps the greatest risk of his career. Despite severe liabilities, Whistler filed suit against Ruskin, accusing him of libel and demanding reparations of one thousand guineas plus costs. Whistler gambled on a swift victory, but was instead accorded a prolonged defeat. Though nominally triumphant, he was afforded damages of a measly one farthing and was curtly informed to pay his own court fees. The upshot of the trial pushed Whistler over the edge to bankruptcy. His new house, prized collection of Japanese artifacts, and unsold works were impounded and sold at auction. What could have inspired Whistler to stake the little that remained of his bank account on the Ruskin Trial â€" was this purely the brash flight of fancy of an eccentric? In fact, the testimony of Whistler's friends and acquaintances as well as the scholarly criticism of the incident oppose this assumption. Though the Ruskin Trial might appear to have taken a profound toll on the artist, Whistler understood the Ruskin Trial, whatever the outcome and despite pecuniary risks, as an opportunity for gain in what he considered the more important arena of artistic pride.
Whistler saw the Ruskin trial first as an opportunity to assert the supremacy of art over the increasingly powerful domain of criticism. J. Pennell argues in Life of Whistler that Whistler perceived the case as an allegory of the battle "between the brush and the pen" (qtd. Pennell 165). Whistler had been known to take a disapproving attitude towards the press. For instance, his close friend and follower, Mortimer Menpes, writes in his memoir Whistler As I Knew Him that, "unless a critic was sympathetic, the Master treated him with scorn" (Menpes 122). However, if by contrast the critic was supportive, "he would then proceed to give the man word for word the whole gist of his article" (Menpes 123). Though Whistler stated during the course of the proceedings that "it [was] not for [him] to criticize the critics" (qtd. Anderson 220), the Ruskin Trial was born out of his censure for those who would criticize outside of their own craft. And despite his actual defeat, Whistler succeeded in dealing a blow to criticism and particularly to Ruskin, who had enjoyed a rising popularity and influence in artistic circles throughout England until the suit. Pennell most eloquently writes, "Whistler denied the right of Ruskin, master of English literature, popularizer of pictures, to declare himself infallible" (Pennell 165). In engaging the Ruskin Trial, Whistler asserted the primacy of artistic vision â€" the freedom of the artist to create unfettered by the bonds of the critic.
Additionally, the Ruskin Trial represented for Whistler, who was known by some as an exhibitionist and by all as a very public figure, a forum in which to express his views on the nature of art for posterity. Some of Whistler's most famous declarations on art as outside of narrative â€" as purely aesthetic â€" came out of the Ruskin trial. Anderson in his book Whistler Beyond the Myth attest to the rehearsed quality of Whistler's responses to the examination of his own counsel (Anderson 221). Thus, it seems that Whistler saw the trial as a medium through which to convey his more radical views as to the nature of art to a wider and more captivated audience than he might have received otherwise. Though fiscally damaged by the verdict, Whistler was opportunistic in his use of the court system.
Whistler reaped timeless gains from the Ruskin trial; he dealt a resounding blow to the criticism that he so disdained and advanced the emerging concept of art for art's sake, risking his material assets to perform the role of a true leader in the aesthetic movement. According to Anderson, Whistler was "always one to get the last word" (Anderson 224), and even after the trial closed, he published a pamphlet entitled Whistler v. Ruskin: Art and Art Critics, which furthered his message, selling out six editions at a shilling a copy. Furthermore, shortly after the culmination of the trial, Whistler received a commission to Venice from a source that had been favorable to his cause. It was there â€" in this city that represented the first building-block towards regaining financial security â€" that he painted some of the greatest works of his career, "moonlights" of surmounting beauty including Nocturne in Blue and Silver: The Lagoon, Venice. Though the Ruskin trial may appear a defeat for Whistler, despite his nominal victory, the gains associated with this risk are timeless, whereas the losses have been left to history.
One of the most prolific masters of Japanese landscape print, Ando Hiroshige, known also as Utagawa Hiroshige, created between twelve and thirteen hundred prints of Edo alone and countless other depictions of famous places throughout Japan (Narazaki 19). Hiroshige began his career with portrayals of actors and beauties in keeping with the fashionable motifs of the time. Regarded as "too traditional and, perhaps, too high-brow for the print buying public" ("Ando Hiroshige"), landscape print had been considered defunct for quite some time, but witnessed a revitalization in the late 1820s when an increasing mobility of the populace precipitated a demand for illustrated travel guides (Jansen 7). Thus, it was not until 1826, fourteen years after the completion of his apprenticeship in 1812, that he released his first landscape series, Famous Views of the Eastern Capital. Only in 1832 did he complete the series The Fifty-three Stages of the Tokaido, for which he received his first national acclaim. This success encouraged Hiroshige to become increasingly a true landscapist ("Ando Hiroshige"), and his output increased rapidly. Between 1834 and 1839, Hiroshige produced numerous small series of the famous cities of Japan, as well the series Sixty-nine Stations of the Kisokaido, which demonstrates a clear stylistic evolution from his earliest prints. After 1849, Hiroshige's landscapes saw a decline in quality, possibly as a result of his tremendous output ("Ando Hiroshige") and possibly as a result of a decrease in demand for landscape art. However, in 1853, he reemerged as a master of landscape art with the publication of Famous Views of the Sixty Odd Provinces, and in 1856, he began what is commonly considered his chef d'oeuvre, One Hundred Famous Views of Edo. In this series, Hiroshige experimented with a vertical format and occasionally defied the traditional large-triptych layout. He died shortly after the completion of this work in 1858 and is accredited with over five thousand designs.
Could Hiroshige actually have seen all of the breathtaking sights depicted in his vast body of works? Indeed, Famous Views of the Sixty Odd Provinces includes one print of each of the sixty-eight provinces of Japan and one of Edo. In order to have sketched each of these sights from life, Hiroshige would have had to execute an exhausting pilgrimage of the island. However, Marije Jansen, author of Hiroshige's Journey in the 60-Odd Provinces, writes of "many stories, mostly originating after [Hiroshige's death], which tell of the many journeys Hiroshige undertook in order to make sketches for his prints," and which imply that Hiroshige did in fact see all of the places depicted in this series (Jansen 16). The power of these tales indicates that Hiroshige probably did travel extensively. For instance, sent on a shogunal delegation to Kyoto in 1830, it is known that Hiroshige traveled along the Tokaido, the eastern sea road, and created The Fifty-three Stages of the Tokaido from sketches done on this journey. Yet, Jansen tells us that he probably "relied on drawings found in old printed guidebooks on famous places in Japan for most of the prints," it being common for artists to base their designs on older sources (Jansen17). Furthermore, because Japanese landscapes were often inspired by poetry or traveler's descriptions, Hiroshige would not have felt compelled to base his designs on the truth of the scenes. Jansen concludes that it is likely that "Edo and its environs were the only places that Hiroshige actually visited" (Jansen 17). Thus, like Whistler, Hiroshige painted "from the knowledge of a lifetime" ("Whistler") â€" his works were inspired by a technical understanding of landscape design and the artistic inspiration of a master printmaker.
In addition to his inventive genius, Whistler's tendencies towards the meticulous and the stylized also came out in his method of painting the "Nocturnes." Menpes tells us that Whistler was very particular in the manner of his dress â€" "his straight-brimmed hat, his cane, the way he held his cane, each and every detail was studied, but only as a means of forming a decorative whole" (Menpes 36). This image of Whistler is perhaps exhibited by the portrait of the artist done by his close friend, Walter Greaves, and certainly reveals in Harry Fourniss's charicature. Whistler acted very similarly in terms of his color palette. In an echo of his former observation, Menpes writes, "The colors on his palette, when he did use one, he arranged in a manner which he maintained to be highly scientific" (Menpes 69). Yet this is only the first of many examples in which Whistler's meticulous personality carried over into his method of painting. For instance, if Whistler perceived the slightest imperfection in his brushstrokes or tone, he would wipe away the entire canvas. Thus, his personality greatly influenced his means of capturing the night on canvas.
Rachel became interested in Japonisme after reading that Degas arranged some of his beach scenes in the style of Japanese triptychs. She enjoys weird little details like this one and is sad that they are not "essay-appropriate." Bizarrely given this initial intrigue, Rachel has just completed a project on Whistler's Nocturnes. However, Rachel is not sad to have left the sunny shore behind in favor of London nights. Rachel is from Michigan, so the thought of warm sand just makes her bitter.
The influence of Western music versus the influence of Japanese artistic theories on Whistler's "moonlights" is analogous to Whistler's weak identification with the West versus his strong association with Japan. Whistler "moonlights" are quite clearly influenced by the works of Hiroshige and the artist's desire to adopt Japanese techniques and culture â€" to see Japan in the West. However, their association with music is weak in comparison. For example, Whistler's Nocturne: Blue and Gold â€" Old Battersea Bridge is stylistically and thematically similar to, Bamboo Bank, Kyo-bridge, completed in 1859 by Hiroshige, as each depicts a lone boatmen gliding at an angle under a moonlit bridge. Both works are dominated by strong horizontals and verticals and a blue color scheme. Furthermore, what is presumably Whistler's most famous "moonlight," Nocturne in Black and Gold: the Falling Rocket, which he painted in 1875 and which precipitated the Ruskin trial, strongly resembles Fireworks at Ryogoku, also by Hiroshige (Ono 77). Both works emphasize the sky â€" approximately two-thirds of each canvas â€" and were created using similar horizontal brushstrokes. More importantly, their skies share a binary color scheme of black and gold. These parallels show the strength of Whistler's impulse to create Japan in London. He communicates an interpretation of East and West as interconnected by using the works of the Japanese master, Hiroshige, as templates for his studies of London.
However, the strong relationship of Nocturne in Black and Gold and Nocturne in Blue and Gold to the latter portions of their titles does not exhibit in terms of the "Nocturne." Though both works present London at night, the nocturnal theme is better encapsulated by "moonlight" than by "Nocturne," which carries with it other associations that obscure this denotation. Furthermore, neither of the works is thematically musical. Stylistically, while loose parallels might be drawn between the "moonlights" and music, they are unimpressive given that they are purely subjective. Furthermore, the Pennells, authors of Life of Whistler and close friends of the artist, tell us that Whistler repeatedly changed the titles of his "Nocturnes" and repeatedly exhibited different pictures with the same title (Pennell 116). In the words of Mr. Bernhard Sickert, "such alterations made by the artist himself stultify the whole idea [of music], and provide that the analogy of music does not hold consistently. Any musician would tell us that we could not change the title of Symphony in C minor to Sonata in G major without making it an absurdity" (qtd. Pennell 116). Sickert argues that while there is an objective quality to musical compositions that bars a change in their titles without a change in notes, Whistler saw his "moonlights" as fluid creations that might change even without any actual physical change. Thus, because any weak parallels that the "moonlights" might possibly have to the "Nocturne" are eclipsed by strong parallels with the works of Hiroshige, placing the "Nocturne" in the title of his "moonlights," Whistler succeeded only in causing the viewer to stray from the essential import of the works.
He greatly admired the use of the binary color scheme in Hiroshige's paintings and prints, exclaiming, "'The same color ought to appear in the picture continually here and there, in the same way that thread appears in an embroidery…Look how well the Japanese have understood this. They never look for contrast, on the contrary, they're after repetition'" (qtd. Holden 13). Whistler took Hiroshige's binary color theory to heart in creating his "moonlights." Another of Hiroshige's pieces, Night View of Kanazawa under the Full Moon, which was completed in 1857 not long before Whistler began his own "moonlights," displays a binary color scheme of blue and gray. Though the work includes white elements such as the moon and waves, this third color comes from the background on which the work was done and thus was not actively employed by the artist. 
Whistler's Nocturne in Blue and Gold: Entrance to Southampton Water bears striking similarity to Night View of Kanazawa under the Full Moon, depicting a moonlit bay done in a binary color scheme of blue and gray. However, unlike Hiroshige, Whistler used white and gold oils to paint the moon as well as the light from other ships in the harbor, which do not figure in to Hiroshige's piece, thus demonstrating the continuing influence of the West on his style. Nevertheless, in the Japanese tradition, Whistler was known for paying special attention to his grounds (Chaleyssin 38). Furthermore, that he created copious quantities of "moonlights" all in binary color schemes demonstrates the extent to which Whistler was dedicated to the Japanese master Hiroshige's theories of color. 
Whistler wove variations on the same two tones together on canvas to create the look and feel of dusk that he recognized in Japanese paintings and prints. By using a reduced color scheme, he emphasized the murkiness of the night air â€" its ability to merge two distinct entities into one. Indeed, on two occasions, Whistler's "moonlights" were hung upside-down by gallery workers unable to tell the difference between the water and sky (Chaleyssin 40). This confusion is understandable given the almost perfect mirror image of the two elements that Whistler creates in "moonlights" such as Nocturne in Blue and Silver â€" Battersea Reach and Nocturne in Blue and Silver â€" Cremorne Lights. And, given the difficulty in distinguishing water and sky, it is easy to see how Whistler might have succeeded in combining Japan and London in the foggy 
Chelsea nights. Painting in a binary color scheme, Whistler's "moonlights" are an attempt to show European landscapes through the eyes of the Japanese â€" to see London as Tokyo.
